UNIVERSITY   OF    CALIFORNIA 

COLLEGE   OF   AGRICULTURE 

AGRICULTURAL    EXPERIMENT   STATION 

BERKELEY,    CALIFORNIA 


Standardization  and  Improvement 
of  California  Butter 


FRED  H.  ABBOTT 


BULLETIN  443 

November,  1927 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PRINTING  OFFICE 

BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA 

1927 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2012  with  funding  from 

University  of  California,  Davis  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/standardizationi443abbo 


STANDARDIZATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF 
CALIFORNIA  BUTTER1 

FRED  H.  ABBOTT2 


INTRODUCTION 

Standardization  of  butter  is  the  process  of  manufacture  by  which 
uniform  flavor,  texture,  composition,  and  color  are  secured.  It  has 
not  been  generally  adopted  in  the  United  States,  but  some  foreign 
countries  which  depend  upon  export  trade  in  butter  have  adopted  it. 
Canada  has  a  very  good  system  of  grading  butter  according  to  quality. 
The  provinces  of  Alberta  and  Saskatchewan  particularly  are  follow- 
ing a  system  in  which  butter  is  scored  by  official  inspectors,  the  grade 
being  marked  on  each  container  and  reports  made  both  to  the  manu- 
facturer and  to  the  buyer.  Under  this  system,  50  per  cent  of  the 
butter  manufactured  has  been  reported  as  uniform  in  quality. 

New  Zealand  has  one  of  the  most  efficient  organizations  for  the 
standardization  of  butter.  All  of  the  butter  exported  to  England 
from  that  country  is  required  by  law  to  be  up  to  a  specified  standard. 
Each  churning  is  scored  both  before  it  is  shipped  and  again  when  it 
reaches  Liverpool,  by  representatives  of  the  New  Zealand  Government. 
If  the  butter  has  deteriorated'  in  transit,  it  is  rejected  or  placed  in 
a  lower  grade.  Reports  on  such  shipments  are  returned  to  New 
Zealand  and  the  creameries  which  made  the  butter  are  notified  and 
given  aid  in  improving  conditions. 

Denmark  uses  what  is  known  as  the  "lure  mark."(1)3  Creameries 
are  permitted  to  use  this  mark  or  brand  only  after  they  have  succeeded 
in  manufacturing  uniform,  high-quality  butter.  All  export  butter 
must  bear  this  ' '  lure  mark. ' '  That  Danish  butter  has  been  standard- 
ized for  many  years  is  known  to  buyers  throughout  the  world.  Danish 
butter,  therefore,  generally  meets  with  ready  sale  at  top  prices. 

The  time  will  probably  come  when  a  national  movement  will  be 
started  to  standardize  the  butter  made  in  the  United  States.     This 


i  In  presenting  this  outline  of  the  work  carried  on  in  butter  standardization 
and  improvement,  the  author  wishes  to  express  his  sincere  appreciation  to  the 
creamerymen  who  cooperated  in  furnishing  some  of  the  data  used  in  this  publica- 
tion; and  to  Miss  M.  A.  Ashenfelter,  in  charge  of  the  laboratory  in  which  all  the 
analyses  and  experimental  work  was  done,  for  the  painstaking  care  given  to  this 
work  to  provide  accurate  results,  thus  greatly  adding  to  the  value  of  the  work. 

2  Associate  in  Dairy  Industry. 

s  Small  figures  in  parentheses  refer  to  "Literature  Cited,"  p.  27. 


4  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

is  not  a  new  subject,  but  one  that  has  been  often  discussed  in  leading 
dairy  sections.  Iowa,  Minnesota,  and  Michigan  have  adopted  state 
brands  for  butter.  These  states  report  that  the  brands  have  proved 
very  successful  in  improving  the  butter  and  stabilizing  dairy  produc- 
tion in  the  sections  supplying  the  creameries  which  are  using  the 
state  brands.  Iowa  creameries  using  the  state  trade  mark  virtually 
place  their  butter  makers  on  probation.  Should  the  use  of  the  trade- 
mark be  revoked  because  the  butter  is  not  up  to  standard,  the  butter 
makers  may  be  asked  to  resign. 

The  work  reported  in  this  bulletin  covers  an  extension  program 
started  July,  1922,  for  the  standardization  and  improvement  of  butter 
in  California.  It  began  under  a  cooperative  agreement  between  the 
Bureau  of  Dairying,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and 
the  Dairy  Industry  Division,  University  of  California.  The  Bureau 
of  Dairying  discontinued  cooperation  at  the  close  of  the  second  year. 


NEED    FOR    STANDARDIZATION    AND    IMPROVEMENT    OF    BUTTER 

The  most  important  reason  for  standardizing  butter  is  that  trade 
conditions  demand  it.  Butter  of  uniform  texture,  color,  and  flavor 
is  desired.  Changes  in  color,  mottles,  leakiness,  stickiness,  and  gritti- 
ness  (undissolved  salt)  as  well  as  changes  in  flavor  are  quickly  noted. 
The  butter  trade  recognizes  this  fact;  consequently,  a  creameryman 
supplying  uniform  butter  receives  a*better  price  than  one  whose 
butter  arrives  on  the  market  with  irregular  color,  salt,  and  flavor. 
In  fact,  the  uniform  butter  usually  brings  a  higher  price,  even  though 
the  flavor  is  less  desirable  than  the  average  of  that  of  the  non-uniform 
butter. 

In  California,  the  main  butter  markets  are  in  the  Los  Angeles 
and  San  Francisco  Bay  regions.  Butter  is  received  on  these  markets 
from  all  parts  of  the  state,  as  well  as  from  other  states.  It  usually 
arrives  in  68-pound  cubes,  consigned  to  the  commission  companies. 
Some  of  this  butter  changes  hands  in  bulk  just  as  on  other  large 
markets.  However,  in  California,  most  of  the  commission  houses 
cut  and  wrap  the  butter  they  receive,  and  distribute  it  to  the  dealers 
from  whom  the  consumers  purchase  it.  Consequently,  the  commission 
houses  having  large  established  trades  and  with  definite  brands  or 
trade-marks,  are  anxious  to  secure  butter  that  is  uniform.  They 
cannot  readily  fill  their  orders  one  day  with  low-colored  butter  of 
a  certain  flavor  and  the  next  with  butter  of  higher  color  and  different 
flavor. 


BUL.  443]    STANDARDIZATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  CALIFORNIA  BUTTER      5 

Butter  is  also  exported  from  California.  In  order  that  it  may 
bring  top  prices,  each  shipment  must  be  uniform  so  that  the  purchaser 
can  fill  his  orders,  with  butter  of  uniform  quality. 

A  shipment  exported  from  the  state  often  consists  of  butter  from 
several  creameries.  If  the  color,  flavor,  and  texture  are  different  in 
the  butter  received  from  these  creameries,  such  shipments  cannot  com- 
mand top  prices.  It  is  essential  that  the  manufacturers  in  California 
receive  top  prices  in  order  that  they  may  pay  the  producers  enough 
money  to  make  dairying  profitable,  since  the  value  of  California  land 
is  relatively  higher  than  that  of  surrounding  states. 

Before  a  creameryman  can  accurately  determine  the  price  he  can 
afford  to  pay  the  producer,  it  is  necessary  that  the  salt,  moisture, 
curd,  and  fat  in  the  butter  be  standardized  so  that  a  uniform  churn 
gain  or  overrun  can  be  obtained.  The  federal  laws  require  that 
butter  contain  at  least  80  per  cent  of  butterfat  and  less  than  16 
per  cent  of  moisture.  California  laws(2)  permit  16  per  cent  of  moisture 
in  butter.  For  example,  a  creamer  having  a  monthly  production  of 
40,000  pounds  of  butter  containing  an  average  of  80.5  per  cent  of 
butterfat,  could  pay  more  per  pound  of  butterfat  in  cream  than  the 
creamery  making  the  same  amount  of  butter  with  an  average  butter- 
fat content  of  82.5  per  cent.  The  second  creamery  would  lose  two 
pounds  of  fat  for  every  hundred  pounds  of  butter.  At  forty-five  cents 
a  pound  for  butter,  the  loss  on  a  monthly  production  of  40,000  pounds 
would  be  $360.00,  or  $4,320.00  a  year. 

In  the  work  of  butter  standardization  and  improvement,  these 
factors  are  kept  in  mind,  and  efforts  are  made  to  instruct  the  cream- 
erymen  in  the  economical  manufacture  of  butter,  so  they  can  pay  the 
producers  the  highest  price  possible  for  their  cream,  thus  stabilizing 
and  encouraging  production. 

The  butter  markets  recognize  two  classes  of  consumers:  the  first 
class  consisting  of  those  demanding  high  quality,  the  second  class 
consisting  of  those  to  whom  quality  is  of  minor  importance,  and 
who  will  purchase  butter  according  to  price  alone.  It  is  important 
that  the  butter  manufacturers  in  California  cater  to  the  first  class 
of  consumers  in  order  that  dairying  in  California  may  be  made  more 
profitable.  This  fact  has  been  kept  before  the  creamerymen  in  the 
field  work  which  has  been  carried  on. 

The  average  difference  in  price  between  butter  scoring  93  points 
'extra'  and  that  scoring  90  points  'first'  for  the  years  1924  and  1925, 
was  three  and  six-tenths  cents.  A  creamery  with  a  daily  output  of 
1500  pounds  or  546,500  pounds  a  year,  having  the  butter  score  'firsts' 
instead  of  'extras'  would  lose  $19,674.00  a  year.    A  creamery  manu- 


6  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

facturing  butter  of  low  grade  does  not  stimulate  dairy  production. 
It  is  as  important  for  creameries  to  be  able  to  manufacture  butter 
of  the  highest  quality  as  it  is  for  the  producers  to  supply  themselves 
with  only  the  best  cows  and  good  purebred  sires.  There  is  little  to 
be  gained  through  the  establishment  of  better  sires  and  cows  and 
economical  production  of  milk,  if  the  creamery  in  turn  cannot  manu- 
facture butter  that  will  command  top  prices  on  the  market,  thereby 
enabling  it  to  pay  the  producer  a  profitable  price  for  cream. 


METHODS  OF  PROCEDURE  IN  THE  LABORATORY 

A  laboratory  is  provided  in  the  Dairy  Industry  Building  at  the 
Branch  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  at  Davis  to  carry  on  extension 
work  in  butter  standardization  and  improvement.  The  laboratory 
has  been  a  large  factor  in  retaining  the  interest  of  the  creamerymen 
in  this  work. 

An  agreement  is  entered  into  with  the  creameries  cooperating 
which  specifies  the  conditions  for  conducting  the  work.  A  copy  of 
the  yearly  agreement  is  given  below. 

COOPEEATIVE    AGREEMENT    FOR   BUTTER    STANDARDIZATION    AND 

IMPROVEMENT   WITH    THE   DAIRY   INDUSTRY   DIVISION, 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  AND 

(Name  of  creamery.) 

In  consideration  of  the  services  offered  by  the  Dairy  Industry  Division,  Univer- 
sity of  California,  in  helping  improve  and  maintain  the  uniformity  of  our  butter 
from  July  1,  1923,  to  June  30,  1924,  we  hereby  agree  to  help  maintain  the  labora- 
tory expenses  necessary  to  conduct  the  work  properly. 

We  agree  to  pay  $10.00  per  month  toward  the  laboratory  expenses  mentioned 
above,  which  entitles  us  to  submit  thirty  samples  a  month  for  analysis.     We  will 

at  no  time  send  more  than  a  maximum  of  samples  per  month, 

and  will  pay  thirty  cents  for  each  additional  sample  above  thirty. 

We  further  agree  to  send  to  the  laboratory  upon  request,  but  not  oftener  than 
once  a  week,  a  one-pound  print  of  butter  for  commercial  scoring.  We  will  follow 
the  advice  given  by  the  Dairy  Industry  Division,  in  the  manufacture  of  a  high- 
grade  butter.  We  also  agree  to  submit  an  accurate  copy  of  the  churning  report 
covering  the  churning  from  which  this  butter  was  made. 

It  is  understood  that  the  Dairy  Industry  Division  Avill  furnish  the  laboratory 
and  supervision  of  the  work  without  charge,  and  a  written  report  giving  results 
of  each  analysis  and  commercial  scoring  of  each  sample  submitted,  as  soon  as 
practicable. 

Manager. 


BlTL.  443]    STANDARDIZATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  CALIFORNIA  BUTTER      7 

After  signing  the  agreements,  the  creameries  are  supplied  with 
sample  jars,  mailing  tubes,  and  mailing  cartons.  The  sample  jars  used 
are  fitted  with  either  cork  or  rubber-lined  caps  and  are  thoroughly 
dried  in  an  electric  oven  before  being  mailed  to  the  creameries.     This 


Fig.  1. — Containers  used  to  send  butter  samples  for  scoring  and  analysis. 


Fig.  2. — Laboratory  in  which  analyses  of  butter  samples  are  made. 

precaution  is  used  to  add  accuracy  to  the  work  by  eliminating  the  possi- 
bility of  placing  butter  in  moist  jars.  The  sample  jars  are  placed  in 
mailing  tubes  (fig.  1)  each  bearing  the  return  address  of  the  labora- 


8  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

tory.  Nine  mailing  tubes  are  then  placed  in  corrugated  fiber  boxes, 
two  of  which  are  supplied  to  each  creamery.  As  soon  as  they  have 
sent  nine  samples,  another  box  of  empty  containers  is  furnished  them. 
This  provides  the  creameries  with  a  constant  supply. 

The  creameries  are  given  instructions  for  taking  the  samples  and 
for  mailing  them  to  the  laboratory.  At  the  laboratory  the  samples 
are  analyzed  for  moisture,  salt,  curd,  and  fat,  and  reports  of  the 
analyses  are  sent  to  the  creamery.  A  record  of  these  analyses  is  also 
kept  in  the  laboratory  files. 

At  intervals,  usually  of  one  week,  each  creamery  sends  a  one-pound 
print  of  butter  to  the  laboratory  for  scoring.  This  butter  is  removed 
from  the  original  wrapper  and  placed  in  plain  wrappers  before  scor- 
ing, so  that  the  judges  may  not  know  the  source  of  butter  they  are 
scoring.  Yeast  and  mold  counts  are  also  made  on  these  samples, 
which  require  approximately  five  days  to  complete.  The  score  and 
the  report  of  yeast  and  mold  are  then  mailed  to  the  creamery. 

Yeast  and  Mold  Counts. — The  yeast  and  mold  counts  are  an  indi- 
cation of  the  sanitary  manufacture  of  the  butter.  Butter  does  not 
have  satisfactory  keeping  quality  unless  good  sanitary  conditions 
prevail.  Authorities  do  not  agree  as  to  whether  or  not  yeasts  and 
molds  are  themselves  directly  responsible  for  the  deterioration  of 
butter,  but  they  do  agree  that  the  amount  of  yeasts  and  molds  is  an 
indication  of  its  keeping  quality. 

In  this  work  some  difficulty  was  experienced  in  so  plating  samples 
of  butter  for  yeast  and  mold  that  bacterial  colonies  were  inhibited. 
The  counting  of  yeasts  and  molds  on  the  plates  is  more  difficult  if 
colonies  of  bacteria  are  also  present.  The  best  medium  to  use  to 
inhibit  the  growth  of  bacteria,  according  to  Lund,4  is  near-beer  or 
wort  agar  plus  acid.  Since  wort  is  difficult  to  secure,  near-beer  is  used 
in  preparing  the  medium.     Satisfactory  results  have  been  obtained. 

In  preparing  the  agar,  a  one-pint  bottle  of  near-beer  is  poured  into 
a  liter  flask,  the  bottle  is  rinsed  out  twice  with  tap  water,  and  this 
water  is  added  to  the  flask  to  increase  the  solution  to  900  cc.  Fourteen 
grams  of  agar  are  then  added  to  the  flask  and  the  mixture  heated  in 
an  autoclave  for  twenty  minutes  at  fifteen  pounds  pressure.  It  is 
filtered  and  divided  into  100-cc.  portions  in  Erlenmeyer  flasks,  which 
are  then  stoppered  with  cotton  plugs.  These  flasks  of  agar  are  then 
sterilized  in  an  autoclave  for  twenty  minutes  at  eighteen  pounds 
pressure. 


4  From  private  correspondence  with  T.  H.  Lund,  Ontario  Agricultural  College, 
Guelph,  Ontario,  Canada. 


BUL.  443]    STANDARDIZATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  CALIFORNIA  BUTTER      9 

The  samples  of  butter  to  be  plated  for  yeast  and  mold  are  taken 
from  the  one-pound  prints  of  butter  sent  to  the  laboratory  weekly. 
A  slice  of  butter  one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick  is  cut  from  the  outside 
of  each  print  of  butter  with  a  spatula  flamed  to  avoid  surface  con- 
tamination, and  then  about  two  grams  of  butter  are  taken  from  the 
freshly  cut  surface  of  each  print  and  placed  in  a  sterile  petri  dish. 
The  butter  is  melted  near  a  lighted  gas  jet.  For  plating  each  sample 
of  butter,  three  sterile  1-cc.  pipettes,  three  sterile  petri  dishes,  and  two 
sterile  9-cc.  water  blanks  are  required. 

The  pipettes  used  for  the  plating  of  butter  are  heated  in  an  electric 
oven  or  by  passing  them  through  a  flame  before  using.    If  the  pipettes 


Fig.  3. — Plates  showing  butter  (A)  with  high  yeast  and  mold  counts  and 
(B)  with  no  yeast  and  mold.  Note  that  the  small  butterfat  globules  in  the  clear 
plate  resemble  colonies  of  bacteria. 

are  cold,  the  melted  butter  will  adhere  to  the  inside  and  a  discharge 
of  one  cubic  centimeter  will  not  be  obtained.  The  melted  butter  is 
thoroughly  mixed  in  the  petri  dish  with  a  warm  pipette,  and  one 
cubic  centimeter  is  then  transferred  to  the  first  water  blank,  making 
a  dilution  of  1  to  10.  With  another  sterile  pipette,  the  l-to-10  dilution 
is  thoroughly  mixed  and  one  cubic  centimeter  is  transferred  to  the 
second  water  blank,  making  a  dilution  of  1  to  100.  With  the  same 
pipette  one  cubic  centimeter  is  transferred  from  the  l-to-10  dilution 
to  a  sterile  petri  dish  marked  1  to  10.  With  a  third  sterile  pipette 
one  cubic  centimeter  is  transferred  from  the  l-to-100  dilution  to  a 
second  petri  dish  marked  1  to  100. 

The  medium  is  warmed  just  enough  to  pour  easily  and  four  cubic 
centimeters  of  a  5-per-cent  solution  of  lactic  acid  are  added  to  each 


10  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

100  cubic  centimeters  immediately  before  pouring.  Sufficient  medium 
is  added  to  each  petri  dish  to  cover  the  bottom  while  the  diluted  butter 
is  still  warm.  The  dish  is  gently  rotated  until  the  diluted  butter 
is  well  mixed  with  the  medium  and  it  is  then  allowed  to  stand  until 
the  medium  becomes  hard.  The  dishes  are  then  inverted  to  prevent 
the  moisture  which  gathers  on  the  inside  of  the  cover  of  the  petri 
dish  from  dropping  on  the  medium.  The  plates  are  then  held  in  the 
incubator  at  30°  C.  The  molds  are  counted  at  the  end  of  forty-eight 
hours,  and  the  yeasts  and  Pencillium  in  five  days.  Plates  thus  made 
can  be  counted  quickly,  as  bacteria  do  not  develop  to  interfere. 

The  butter  is  rated  according  to  the  number  of  yeasts  and  molds 
present.  When  there  are  from  zero  to  ten  present,  the  butter  is  classed 
as  excellent ;  from  ten  to  twenty,  as  good ;  and  from  twenty  to  thirty, 
as  fair. 

METHODS    OF    PROCEDURE    IN    FIELD    WORK 

The  field  work  in  the  standardization  and  improvement  of  butter 
is  essential.  The  laboratory  work  is  a  guide  for  the  creameries,  aiding 
them  in  maintaining  uniformity.  It  also  indicates  which  creameries 
need  instruction.  When  the  creamerymen  have  difficulty  in  main- 
taining uniform  quality,  they  are  given  instruction  through  corre- 
spondence or  by  a  special  visit. 

Dairy  manufacturing  is  based  upon  the  four  sciences:  chemistry, 
bacteriology,  physics,  and  engineering.  To  be  efficient  in  creamery 
work,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  knowledge  of  these  subjects,  and  in 
addition  a  thorough  knowledge  of  business  principles  and  training 
in  buying  and  selling. 

Many  creamerymen  who  operate  at  a  loss,  without  knowing  the 
methods  of  preventing  it,  conclude  that  the  creamery  industry  is 
a  losing  business.  In  such  cases,  it  has  been  necessary  to  show  the 
managers  the  advantage  to  their  creameries  of  adopting  the  butter- 
improvement  program.  Creameries  operated  by  experienced  men 
have  been  noticeably  more  anxious  to  undertake  this  work  than  those 
operated  by  men  of  less  experience.  However,  in  most  cases,  after 
the  latter  have  cooperated  in  this  work  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to 
learn  some  of  the  fundamentals  of  creamery  operation  and  the  manu- 
facture of  butter,  they  have  also  become  ardent  supporters  of  the 
program  and  have  obtained  very  satisfactory  results. 

It  has  been  necessary  in  some  instances  to  work  with  a  creamery 
for  from  six  to  twelve  months  before  improvements  were  noticeable. 
A  few  creameries  have  made  very  little  progress  during  the  past  two 


BUL.  443]    STANDARDIZATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  CALIFORNIA  BUTTER    11 

years.  Because  of  the  cooperative  nature  of  the  work,  the  Division 
of  Dairy  Industry  has  followed  the  policy  of  offering  suggestions  and 
giving  help  only  when  requested,  a  policy  which  accounts  for  irregular 
results  with  a  few  creameries. 

The  need  for  instruction  at  the  creameries  is  indicated  when  the 
laboratory  analyses  of  the  butter  show  results  higher  or  lower  than 
the  standards  adopted  for  composition,  when  the  scores  of  the  butter 
show  defects  in  workmanship,  and  when  the  yeast  and  mold  counts 
are  abnormally  high.  A  survey  of  the  butter  arriving  on  the  San 
Francisco  and  Los  Angeles  markets  is  made  at  least  once  each  year 
to  observe  the  condition  in  which  the  butter  arrives.  This  survey 
provides  another  source  of  information,  indicating  the  creameries  in 
need  of  instruction. 

Flavor  of  butter  depends  largely  upon  the  quality  of  the  cream 
received  at  the  creamery.  When  the  cream  is  found  to  be  the  cause 
of  bad  flavor  in  this  butter,  instruction  is  given  in  grading  the  cream. 
Insufficient  time  has  made  it  impossible  to  do  much  work  with  the 
producers  in  cream  improvement.  Special  attention  has,  therefore, 
been  given  to  instructing  some  one  in  each  creamery  in  the  proper 
methods  to  use  in  producing  good  cream  so  he  can  work  with  the 
producers.  The  creamerymen  meeting  with  the  greatest  success  in 
this  respect  are  those  who  are  equipped  with  knowledge  of  the  proper 
procedure  to  follow,  and  with  diplomacy  in  dealing  with  the  dairymen. 

The  method  employed  by  the  creameries  in  securing  the  raw 
material  has  a  direct  bearing  on  the  quality  of  the  cream.  Four 
methods  are  used  in  California : 

1.  Gathering  cream  by  auto  truck. 

2.  Direct  shipping. 

3.  Collecting  at  cream  stations. 

4.  Direct  delivery  to  the  creamery  by  the  producers. 

Some  of  the  larger  creameries  employ  all  four  methods  of  securing 
cream.  However,  most  of  the  cream  in  California  is  gathered  by  auto 
trucks.  This  system  is  aided  by  the  large  amount  of  paved  highway. 
By  this  method  the  best  quality  of  cream  is  obtained,  as  it  is  picked 
up  at  regular  intervals  before  it  is  too  old.  Some  creameries  operate 
stations  where  the  cream  is  gathered  by  auto  trucks  and  then  shipped 
to  the  central  creamery.  Usually  these  stations  are  not  equipped  to 
cool  the  cream  before  shipment,  and  the  delay  in  having  it  reach  the 
creamery  generally  results  in  a  poorer  grade. 

Sanitation. — The  sanitary  conditions  of  the  entire  creamery  have 
a  direct  bearing  on  the  keeping  quality  of  the  butter.  Each  day's 
manufacture  should  have  uniform  keeping  quality. 


12  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

The  yeast  and  mold  counts  of  the  butter  have  provided  a  good 
check  on  its  sanitary  manufacture  and  on  its  keeping  quality.  Cream- 
erymen  have  found  that  complaints  usually  follow  the  sale  of  butter 
having  high  yeast  and  mold  counts. 

Investigators  do  not  agree  that  ordinary  pasteurizing  tempera- 
tures, 145°  F  for  thirty  minutes,  or  from  176°  to  180°  F  for  about 
twenty  seconds,  destroy  all  the  yeasts  and  molds.  Some  claim  one- 
hundred-per-cent-efficiency,  while  others  show  as  low  as  ninety-eight. 
In  the  work  done  at  this  station,  however,  no  yeasts  or  molds  were 
found  in  pasteurized  cream  when  these  temperatures  were  used. 

Where  the  continuous  flash  method  of  pasteurization  is  practised, 
the  first  cream  which  goes  through  the  pasteurizer  while  the  steam  is 
being  regulated  to  obtain  the  desired  temperature,  is  not  subjected 
to  proper  pasteurizing  temperature  and  some  yeasts  and  molds,  there- 
fore, survive.  This  cream  is  turned  back  into  the  vat  or  bi-passed  so 
that  it  will  go  through  the  pasteurizer  a  second  time. 

There  are  a  number  of  sources  for  contamination  by  yeast  and 
mold  after  the  cream  has  been  pasteurized.  Where  the  vat  method 
of  pasteurization  is  used,  the  cream  in  the  gate  valve  at  the  end  of  the 
pasteurizer  is  not  subjected  to  pasteurizing  temperatures.  It  should 
be  drawn  off  and  placed  in  another  vat  of  cream  to  be  pasteurized. 

Cream  pumps  and  pipe  lines  used  to  convey  the  cream  from  the 
vat  to  the  churn  were  also  found  to  be  sources  of  contamination. 
When  taken  apart,  cleaned,  and  properly  sterilized  every  day  after 
being  used,  this  source  of  trouble  was  eliminated. 

The  water  used  to  wash  the  butter  is  another  possible  source  of 
contamination  by  yeast  and  mold.  In  the  work  of  butter  improve- 
ment, only  a  few  cases  were  found  where  the  city  water  contained 
yeasts  and  molds,  but  private  water  supplies  were  frequently  so 
contaminated.  Butter  ladles,  tampers,  molds,  and  equipment  used  in 
cutting  and  wrapping  butter  were  found  to  be  additional  sources  of 
this  trouble  unless  they  were  properly  washed  and  scalded.  Scrap 
butter  which  is  accumulated  during  the  process  of  cutting  and  wrap- 
ping, and  which  is  reworked  with  a  fresh  churning  is  another  common 
source.  Methods  of  handling  scrap  butter  are  included  in  this  paper 
under  the  sub-heading  ''Churning." 

Treatment  of  Churns. — The  churn  was  found  to  be  the  greatest 
source  of  contamination  with  yeast  and  mold.  In  experiments  con- 
ducted to  determine  the  best  method  of  treating  churns  to  prevent  this 
contamination,  it  was  found  that  most  churns  in  commercial  use  were 
not  washed  properly.  The  procedure  recommended  for  washing  the 
churn  is  as  follows : 


BUL.  443]    STANDARDIZATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  CALIFORNIA  BUTTER   13 

1.  Immediately  after  the  butter  is  removed  rinse  the  churn  with 
about  fifty  gallons  of  water  at  a  temperature  of  at  least  130°  F,  to 
remove  any  butter  clinging  to  the  inside.  Revolve  the  churn  at  high 
speed  for  one  minute  and  empty  the  water  quickly  through  the  doors 
when  possible. 

2.  Fill  the  churn  at  least  one-third  full  of  water  at  180°  F.  Add 
about  two  pounds  of  washing  powder.  (Do  not  use  a  soapy  powder.) 
Revolve  the  churn  for  approximately  two  minutes  at  high  speed, 
leaving  the  vent  valve  open.  Empty  quickly  through  the  doors  when 
possible. 

3.  Permit  the  churn  to  drain  thoroughly.  In  the  long-barrel  churn 
permit  the  water  to  drain  through  the  doors  for  about  one  minute. 
Then  turn  the  churn  so  that  the  doors  are  on  top,  leaving  them  open. 
The  heat  in  the  churn  will  dry  the  inner  surface  quickly  in  that 
position. 

The  churns  should  be  limed  once  each  week.  This  is  done  by 
placing  approximately  fifty  gallons  of  warm  water  (120°  F)  in  the 
churn  and  adding  to  this  about  ten  pounds  of  slaked  lime,  and  then 
revolving  for  ten  minutes  at  intervals  of  one  hour.  If  the  churn  is  in 
use  all  day,  the  lime  solution  should  remain  in  the  churn  over  night. 
In  the  morning  it  should  be  revolved  again  for  about  five  minutes 
and  the  solution  rinsed  out  with  cold  water. 

Unslaked  lime  may  be  used,  but  it  is  not  recommended,  since  the 
lime  would  go  through  the  process  of  slaking  in  the  churn,  and  unless 
extreme  care  were  used  to  relieve  the  pressure  formed  there,  some 
damage  might  result.  When  unslaked  lime  is  used,  the  doors  are 
often  sprung,  and  remain  leaky  thereafter. 

Some  creamerymen  are  of  the  opinion  that  any  alkali  may  be 
used  satisfactorily  in  treating  the  churn,  but  this  is  not  correct,  since 
other  alkalies  common  in  creamery  use  do  not  have  the  deodorizing 
properties  of  lime. 

When  the  washing  was  done  as  described,  the  wash  water  being 
at  180°  F  and  the  churn  limed  once  a  week,  the  yeast  and  mold  count 
were  low. 

Yeast  and  mold  counts  made  in  connection  with  butter  improve- 
ment work  have  been  carried  on  for  about  three  years.  Several 
creameries  have  succeeded  occasionally  in  making  butter  in  which 
no  yeast  or  mold  was  present.  The  average  number  found  in  the 
butter  manufactured  by  the  creameries  cooperating  are  from  twenty 
to  one  hundred  per  cubic  centimeter.  The  creameries  have  not  been 
able  to  control  this  factor  satisfactorily.  This  may  be  because  they 
do  not  follow  closely  the  prescribed  method  of  treating  the  churns. 


14  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

Creameries  usually  experience  difficulty  with  the  keeping  quality 
of  the  butter  if  the  counts  of  yeasts  and  molds  are  over  five  hundred. 
Where  this  trouble  existed,  the  source  of  contamination  was  most 
easily  found  by  examining  samples  of  cream  or  butter  taken  at  each 
step  in  the  process  of  manufacture,  as  follows : 

1.  From  raw  cream. 

2.  From  cream  after  pasteurizing. 

3.  From  the  first  five  gallons  of  cream  entering  the  churn  after 

passing  through  pumps  or  pipe  lines. 

4.  From  wash  water. 

5.  From  buttermilk. 

6.  From  butter  just  before  drawn  from  churn. 

7.  From  butter  in  the  final  package. 

A  narration  of  some  trouble  experienced  by  one  of  the  creameries 
cooperating  in  butter  improvement  may  explain  some  of  the  uses  to 
which  yeast  and  mold  counts  may  be  put.  The  creamery  had  experi- 
enced trouble  with  the  keeping  quality  of  the  butter.  Special  atten- 
tion had  been  given  to  washing  all  the  equipment,  without  overcom- 
ing the  trouble.  Samples  of  cream,  buttermilk,  wash  water,  and 
butter  taken  at  various  stages  of  manufacture  indicated  that  the 
churn  was  the  source  of  trouble.  Careful  examination  of  the  churn 
showed,  in  one  of  the  rollers,  a  crack  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  wide. 
When  the  roller  was  removed  from  the  churn  and  taken  apart,  a  large 
cavity  was  disclosed  where  curd  and  fat  had  become  decomposed. 
While  the  butter  was  being  worked,  some  of  this  decomposed  matter 
was  apparently  forced  out  into  the  churn.  When  the  old  roller  was 
replaced  with  a  new  one,  the  trouble  ceased. 

During  visits  to  creameries,  the  following  subjects  are  taken  up : 

1.  Cream  grading  and  methods  of  improving  the  quality  of  the 

cream. 

2.  Neutralization  of  cream,  when  necessary. 

3.  Pasteurization  of  the  cream. 

4.  Churning  of  cream,  with  special  emphasis  on  the  speed  of  the 

churn;   obtaining   uniform   color   and   desirable   texture   or 
body  of  butter. 

5.  The  control  of  moisture,  salt,  fat,  and  curd. 

6.  Laboratory  tests  necessary  in  the  manufacture  of  butter. 
Cream  Grading. — Instruction  in  cream  grading  is  given,  using  the 

following  grades: 

First-grade  cream :  Sweet  cream  and  cream  free  from  undesirable 
flavors  or  odors,  with  an  acidity  below  0.5  per  cent. 


BUL.  443]    STANDARDIZATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  CALIFORNIA  BUTTER    15 

Second-grade  cream:  Cream  which  has  an  acidity  above  0.50  per 
cent  and  which  may  contain  a  small  amount  of  undesirable  flavors 
or  odors. 

Third-grade  cream:  Cream  that  is  unfit  for  consumption  or  that 
will  not  make  marketable  butter. 

The  best  quality  of  butter  is  made  from  cream  with  low  acidity, 
or  sweet  cream.  The  creameries  located  where  dairying  is  carried 
on  extensively  are  able  to  obtain  more  sweet  cream  than  those  receiv- 
ing cream  by  the  direct  shipping  method  or  through  cream  stations. 
It  is  practically  impossible  to  obtain  sweet  cream  from  some  of  the 
outlying  mountain  valleys  because  the  production  is  so  small  that 
much  time  is  required  for  the  rancher  to  obtain  a  full  can  of  cream. 
Transportation  from  these  sections  is  slow,  resulting  in  development 
of  acidity  in  the  cream  while  en  route. 


Fig.  4. — Butter  ready  to  be  scored. 


In  order  to  encourage  the  creameries  to  grade  cream,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  set  the  standard  rather  low  in  the  beginning.  For  example, 
if  the  maximum  amount  of  acid  for  first  grade  had  been  set  at  approx- 
imately 0.35  per  cent  instead  of  0.50  per  cent,  the  grading  would  have 
been  so  severe  in  many  of  the  creameries  that  they  would  not  have 
had  sufficient  first-grade  butter  to  supply  their  trade,  and  grading 
would  not  have  been  adopted.  Some  creameries  that  were  already 
receiving  a  fairly  good  grade  of  cream  could  have  set  the  standard 
at  0.35  per  cent.  However,  in  order  that  the  grading  might  be 
uniform  in  all  the  creameries,  a  standard  was  adopted  that  would  be 
applicable  to  all. 

These  standards  of  grading  combined  with  improved  technique  in 
the  manufacture  of  the  butter  have  improved  the  quality  two  points. 
The  average  score  of  butter  from  all  the  creameries  for  the  first  two 
months  was  90,  while  the  average  score  for  the  last  two  months  was 
92.     The  score  desired  in  this  work  is  93  or  above. 


16  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

Further  work  in  butter  standardization  and  improvement  will 
include  instruction  in  closer  grading,  as  one  means  of  attaining  the 
manufacture  of  butter  that  will  score  93  or  above. 

Instruction  is  given  to  creamerymen  that  will  aid  them  when 
undertaking  the  improvement  of  cream  among  their  patrons.  If  the 
creamerymen  are  to  retain  their  patrons,  diplomacy  must  be  used 
when  informing  the  producers  that  their  cream  supply  is  inferior  in 
quality.  Most  creamerymen  endeavor  to  evade  this  issue.  Improving 
the  quality  of  the  cream  is  a  creamery  task  as  important  as  operating 
the  churn.  The  improvement  in  quality  provides  a  steady  market  at 
better  prices,  which  results  in  greater  returns  both  to  the  manufac- 
turer and  the  producer. 

Where  the  creameries  receive  cream  by  railroad  or  from  patrons 
located  where  a  visit  would  be  too  costly,  correspondence  is  used  in  an 
effort  to  improve  the  cream.  Creameries  have  been  furnished  sample 
letters  to  guide  them  in  the  wording  of  such  correspondence.  The 
following  is  a  copy  of  such  a  letter : 

Dear  Sir: 

We  have  been  receiving  your  cream  and  have  appreciated  your  patronage  very 
much.  We  are  interested  in  the  dairy  development  in  this  community,  and  are 
endeavoring  to  furnish  the  producers  an  excellent  market  for  their  cream.  We 
want  to  assure  you  that  we  have  your  interests  and  the  interests  of  the  com- 
munity as  much  at  heart  as  our  own.  For  this  reason,  we  are  writing  you  con- 
cerning some  of  the  cream  which  we  have  received  from  you. 

In  order  to  place  dairying  on  a  sound  and  stable  basis,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  butter  we  manufacture  be  of  high  quality.  In  order  to  accomplish  this,  all 
the  cream  received  at  our  creamery  is  graded.  If  a  can  of  cream  with  off  flavor 
or  odor  is  placed  in  a  churn  with  cream  free  from  bad  flavors  and  odors,  it  will 
transmit  sufficient  undesirable  qualities  to  the  butter  to  lower  the  quality  of  the 

entire  churning.     Your  cream  received  on  was  not  up  to  its 

usual  high  standard,  and  we  could  not  use  it  in  our  regular  make  of  butter. 

We  are  bringing  this  to  your  attention,  not  to  be  critical,  but  to  ask  your 
cooperation  in  helping  us  to  manufacture  a  product  that  will  make  a  good  name 
for  dairy  products  manufactured  in  this  community.  Your  co-operation  will  be 
greatly  appreciated,  and  with  no  additional  labor  to  you,  we  believe  you  can 
overcome  this  difficulty.  Just  a  little  more  care  in  sterilizing  the  milk  utensils 
and  in  immediately  cooling  the  cream  will  greatly  improve  your  product. 

It  is  desirable  also  to  avoid  mixing  the  warm,  fresh  cream  with  the  older 
cream.  We  believe  that  you  are  interested  in  helping  us  to  produce  butter  that 
will  be  a  credit  to  our  community.  If  we  can  be  of  any  assistance  to  you,  feel 
perfectly  free  to  call  upon  us. 

Again  let  us  assure  you  of  our  appreciation  of  your  patronage,  and  with 
kind  regards,  we  are 

Very  truly  yours, 


BUL.  443]    STANDARDIZATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  CALIFORNIA  BUTTER    17 

Office  Records. — To  obtain  uniformity  in  the  butter  in  some  of  the 
large  creameries,  it  is  necessary  to  prepare  forms  to  be  filled  out  for 
office  records,  since  the  manager  does  not  come  in  close  contact  with 
factory  details.  It  is  important  in  such  cases  that  he  receive  daily 
reports  from  the  factory  covering  exact  procedure. 

Neutralization. — Instruction  in  the  partial  neutralization  of  cream 
is  given  where  the  acidity  of  the  cream  is  above  0.25  per  cent. 
Neutralizing  to  0.25  per  cent  acidity  is  recommended.  Instruction  is 
given  for  the  use  of  bicarbonate  of  soda,  hydrated  lime,  and  magnesium 
lime,  known  to  some  creamerymen  as  milk  of  magnesium.  When 
the  acidity  of  the  cream  is  between  0.25  and  0.35  per  cent,  only  one 
kind  of  neutralizer  is  used.  In  this  case  bicarbonate  of  soda  is  recom- 
mended, because  it  goes  into  solution  more  quickly  than  either  hydrated 
lime  or  magnesium  lime,  and  is  therefore  more  easily  prepared. 

When  the  acidity  is  above  0.35  per  cent,  best  results  have  been 
obtained  by  using  a  combination  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  hydrated 
lime,  or  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  milk  of  magnesium.  The  bicar- 
bonate of  soda  should  not  be  mixed  with  the  other  neutralizers ;  each 
should  be  added  separately. 

Hydrated  lime  and  magnesium  lime  have  similar  properties.  They 
have  similar  flavors,  and  they  both  contain  calcium  hydrate.  Bicar- 
bonate of  soda  has  a  different  flavor  from  the  other  two  neutralizers. 
Advantages  are  claimed  for  both  the  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  the  lime 
neutralizers ;  therefore,  using  first  either  hydrated  lime  or  magnesium 
lime  and  finishing  with  bicarbonate  of  soda  is  often  recommended 
to  creamerymen  to  obtain  the  advantages  of  each.  The  use  of  a  com- 
bination, it  was  found,  reduces  the  likelihood  of  giving  a  neutralized 
flavor  in  the  butter. 

The  neutralizing  chart  shown  in  figure  5  was  prepared  for  use 
in  creameries. (3)  This  chart  has  the  percentage  of  acidity  across  the 
top  and  the  pounds  of  cream  along  each  side.  The  intersection  of  the 
columns  of  the  percentages  of  acid  and  the  pounds  of  cream  indicate 
the  amount  of  neutralizer  in  pints  required  to  reduce  the  acidity 
to  0.25  per  cent.     The  neutralizers  are  prepared  as  follows: 

Bicarbonate  of  soda :  Place  46  lbs.  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  in  a  ten- 
gallon  can  and  fill  with  warm  water.     Stir  thoroughly. 

Hydrated  lime :  Place  24  lbs.  in  a  ten-gallon  can  and  fill  with  warm 
water.    Stir  thoroughly. 

Magnesium  lime :  Place  20  lbs.  in  a  ten-gallon  can  and  fill  about 
two-thirds  full  of  water  at  a  temperature  of  approximately 
100°  F.  Let  this  stand  until  slaking  has  taken  place.  Stir 
and  add  more  water  until  the  solution  reaches  a  thick,  creamy 
condition.  Let  it  stand  from  two  to  three  hours.  Before 
using,  fill  the  can  with  water. 


18 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


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BUL.  443]    STANDARDIZATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  CALIFORNIA  BUTTER    19 

These  neutralizing  solutions,  mixed  as  described,  give  satisfactory 
results  Avhen  used  in  the  amounts  shown  in  the  chart.  The  solutions 
mixed  in  this  way,  however,  are  too  strong  to  be  added  directly  to 
the  cream.  After  the  amount  needed  to  neutralize  a  vat  of  cream 
has  been  measured  out,  an  equal  volume  of  water  is  added  to  it.  The 
solution  is  prepared  in  concentrated  form  to  save  labor  of  preparation. 
It  is  added  to  the  cream  by  use  of  a  sprinkling  can  while  the  cream 
is  being  agitated  in  the  vat.  Any  foam  on  the  cream  should  be 
stirred  as  the  neutralizer  sometimes  collects  there. 

When  neutralizing  cream  containing  from  0.35  to  0.50  per  cent 
acid,  the  ratio  used  is  two  parts  of  hydrated  lime  or  magnesium  lime 
to  one  part  of  bicarbonate  of  soda.  For  example,  2000  pounds  of 
cream  with  an  acidity  of  0.49  per  cent  requires  a  total  of  eight  pints 
of  neutralizer  to  reduce  the  acidity  to  0.25  per  cent,  according  to 
the  chart.  Therefore,  using  a  ratio  of  two  to  one,  it  requires  5.2  pints 
of  hydrated  lime  and  2.8  pints  of  bicarbonate  of  soda,  or  for  practical 
application  5  pints  of  the  first  and  3  pints  of  the  latter.  Hydrated 
lime  or  magnesium  lime  is  used  for  the  larger  portion,  because  these 
neutralizers  have  a  greater  affinity  for  the  acid  incorporated  in  the 
curd,  whereas  bicarbonate  of  soda  acts  more  readily  upon  the  free 
acid.(3)  It  is  desirable  from  the  standpoint  of  the  keeping  qualities 
of  butter  to  reduce  the  acidity  in  the  curd,  because  curd  of  high 
acidity  deteriorates  more  rapidly  than  that  of  lower  acidity. 

The  hydrated  lime  or  magnesium  lime  is  added  to  the  cream  first. 
If  it  were  added  last,  the  remaining  acid  (the  acidity  is  reduced  to 
0.25  per  cent  instead  of  0.0  per  cent)  would  be  mostly  in  the  curd,  a 
condition  which  is  objectionable. 

When  cream  containing  an  acidity  over  0.50  per  cent  is  being 
neutralized,  a  ratio  of  one  to  one  has  given  most  satisfactory  results. 
It  is  not  possible  always  to  eliminate  neutralized  flavor  in  butter  made 
from  high-acid  cream  even  when  equal  parts  of  the  two  neutralizers 
are  used. 

Pasteurization. — Instruction  is  given  in  two  general  methods  of 
pasteurization  in  this  work — the  vat  and  the  flash  methods.  The 
creamerymen  using  the  vat  method  are  advised  to  install  steam  lines 
of  sufficient  size  to  heat  the  cream  to  145°  F  in  thirty  minutes.  After 
the  cream  is  held  at  this  temperature  for  thirty  minutes,  it  is  desirable 
to  cool  it  as  quickly  as  possible.  This  process  requires  that  the  pipes 
leading  to  the  pasteurizer  be  of  sufficient  size  to  carry  a  large  supply 
of  water  and  brine.  Most  creameries  are  now  able  to  cool  the  cream 
in  an  hour  and  thirty  minutes,  where  vat  pasteurization  is  used. 


20  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

The  flash  method  consists  of  heating  the  cream  to  a  temperature 
of  from  176°  to  180°  F,  where  it  is  held  for  approximately  twenty 
seconds.  Creameries  having  a  supply  of  cream  large  enough  to 
justify  a  flash  pasteurizer  are  encouraged  to  use  this  method,  since 
the  butter  made  from  cream  pasteurized  by  the  flash  method  has  a 
firmer  body  and  retains  it  longer  under  warm  atmospheric  conditions. 

Another  reason  for  encouraging  the  use  of  flash  pasteurization  is 
that  the  enzymes,  which  are  a  factor  in  the  deterioration  of  butter,  are 
destroyed  at  a  temperature  of  176°  F,  and  at  a  temperature  between 
176°  F  and  180°  F,  some  bacteria  are  destroyed  that  would  survive 
at  lower  temperatures  of  pasteurization.  Consequently,  butter  made 
from  cream  that  has  been  pasteurized  at  a  temperature  of  from  176°  F 
to  180°  F  has  better  keeping  qualities  than  that  which  is  made  from 
cream  pasteurized  at  a  lower  temperature. 

Churning. — Because  of  varied  feed  and  climatic  conditions,  the 
procedure  of  churning  cream  in  California  varies  in  different  locali- 
ties. In  any  one  locality  it  is  easier  to  make  butter  of  uniform 
composition  if  the  procedure  in  manufacturing  is  uniform  from  day 
to  day.  However,  it  has  been  found  necessary  in  some  creameries  to 
change  the  churning  temperatures,  the  temperature  of  the  wash  water, 
and  the  revolutions  of  the  churn,  according  to  the  source  of  the  cream 
supply.  One  day  the  cream  may  come  from  a  section  where  alfalfa 
is  the  principal  feed  used,  while  the  next  day  it  may  come  from  a 
section  where  cattle  are  on  range  feed.  The  physical  condition  of  the 
cream  varies  with  the  kind  of  feed  consumed  by  the  cows.  Cream- 
eries in  the  mountain  valleys  of  various  elevations  and  climatic  con- 
ditions must  use  different  procedures  in  the  manufacture  of  butter. 

From  December  to  March  of  each  year,  creamerymen  of  California 
have  found  it  difficult  to  avoid  a  sticky  body  in  the  butter  produced. 
It  clings  to  the  knife  when  cut  and  has  a  tendency  to  break  the  bread 
instead  of  spreading  smoothly.  This,  of  course,  is  an  objectionable 
feature  and  causes  the  butter  to  receive  a  lower  grade  on  the  market. 
It  has  been  impossible  to  overcome  this  defect  where  cows  are  given 
a  restricted  diet. 

No  investigational  work  has  been  carried  out  to  determine 
definitely  the  cause  of  this  condition.  The  theory  is  presented  that 
in  certain  sections  at  this  period  in  the  year,  there  is  a  difference  in 
the  relation  of  the  fats  composing  butter  fat.  The  trouble  is  greatest 
when  cattle  are  fed  dry  alfalfa  hay.  Every  procedure  known  in  the 
manufacture  of  butter  to  eliminate  stickiness  has  been  tried  without 
success.  Apparently,  the  solution  lies  in  the  method  of  feeding  the 
cattle.     As  the  difficulty  arises  when  cattle  are  on  a  ration  of  dry 


BUL.  443]    STANDARDIZATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  CALIFORNIA  BUTTER    21 

alfalfa  hay,  it  is  reasonable  to  assumme  that  some  succulent  feed,  such 
as  silage,  would  improve  the  condition. 

In  California,  the  double  standard  of  16  per  cent  moisture  and 
80  per  cent  butter  fat  is  strictly  enforced.  Consequently,  the  control 
of  moisture,  salt,  and  fat  in  butter  has  been  an  important  factor  in 
butter-improvement  work.  A  simple,  time-saving  method  of  con- 
trolling these  factors  has  been  taught  the  creamerymen. 

First,  it  is  necessary  for  the  buttermaker  to  determine  the  amount 
of  butterfat  in  the  churn.  A  measuring  stick  is  very  desirable  in 
determining  the  amount  of  cream  removed  from  the  pasteurizer  or 
holding  vats  to  the  churn.  The  preparation  and  use  of  such  a  stick 
are  as  follows : 

1.  Weigh  into  the  vat  sufficient  cream  not  only  to  cover  the  sloping 
sides  of  the  bottom  but  to  come  well  up  on  the  perpendicular  sides 
of  the  vat. 

2.  Secure  a  smooth,  clean  stick  with  a  cross-section  about  one-half 
inch  square.  Make  a  mark  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  vat  and  extend 
the  stick  down  from  this  mark  until  it  reaches  the  surface  of  the 
cream.  Make  a  notch  in  the  stick  even  with  the  upper  edge  of  the 
vat.  Assuming  that  four  hundred  pounds  of  cream  had  been  placed 
in  the  vat  up  to  this  point,  the  stick  would  indicate  that  there  was 
four  hundred  pounds  cf  cream  below  the  bottom  of  the  stick  each 
time  this  mark  on  the  stick  was  even  with  the  upper  edge  of  the  vat, 
if  measured  from  the  same  place  each  time. 

3.  Add  one  hundred  pounds  of  cream  to  the  vat.  Again  extend 
the  stick  down  to  the  surface  of  the  cream  from  the  same  mark  on 
the  upper  edge  of  the  vat.  Make  a  second  notch  on  the  stick  even 
with  the  upper  edge  of  the  vat;  thereafter,  when  this  notch  is  even 
with  the  upper  edge  of  the  vat,  there  would  be  five  hundred  pounds 
of  cream  beneath  the  bottom  of  the  stick. 

4.  Continue  as  in  3  until  the  vat  is  full. 

Long-barrel  churns  are  operated  at  a  speed  of  from  28  to  30 
revolutions  per  minute,  and  short-barrel  churns,  such  as  the  Simplex, 
are  operated  at  from  18  to  20  revolutions  per  minute.  The  churning 
temperature  recommended  is  the  temperature  that  will  finish  churn- 
ing the  cream  in  from  40  to  50  minutes,  when  the  churn  is  not  quite 
half  full  of  cream  that  tests  between  30  and  35-per-cent  butterfat. 

After  the  churning  is  completed,  the  buttermilk  is  drained  off 
and  the  butter  washed  in  the  usual  way.  One  washing  is  recommended 
for  first-grade  butter  and  two  washings  for  second-grade  butter. 
The  temperature  of  the  wash  water  is  an  important  factor  in  con- 
trolling the  moisture  content  of  butter.     Wash  water  used  at  a  tern- 


22  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

perature  three  degrees  below  that  of  the  buttermilk  has  given  the 
best  results,  except  during  the  months  when  feed  conditions  are 
changing. 

It  is  important  in  controlling  moisture  to  drain  the  wash  water 
thoroughly  from  the  churn  and  to  follow  the  same  procedure  at  each 
churning.  The  long-barrel  churns  can  be  drained  quite  thoroughly 
by  leaving  the  doors  slightly  ajar  and  by  turning  them  so  that  the 
water  will  run  out.  The  moisture  in  the  butter  at  the  time  of  salting 
is  quite  uniform  from  day  to  day,  provided  that  the  procedure  in 
churning  up  to  this  point  is  uniform.  Except  during  a  few  months 
in  the  spring,  the  butter  contains  from  13  to  14  per  cent  of  moisture 
at  the  time  of  salting.  The  amount  of  water  to  add  to  the  churn  to 
obtain  a  desirable  churn  gain  and  still  not  to  exceed  the  moisture 
content  of  16  per  cent  set  by  law  is  determined  as  follows: 

1.  Determine  the  pounds  of  butterfat  in  the  churn  by  multiplying 
the  number  of  pounds  of  cream  by  the  percentage  of  butterfat. 

2.  Estimate  the  pounds  of  finished  butter  by  multiplying  the 
number  of  pounds  of  butterfat  by  25  per  cent  and  adding  the  result 
to  the  pounds  of  butterfat. 

3.  Subtract  the  percentage  of  moisture  in  the  butter  at  the  time 
of  salting  from  15.8  per  cent. 

4.  Multiply  the  estimated  number  of  pounds  of  butter  by  the 
difference  obtained  in  (3).  This  result  will  give  the  amount  of  water 
to  be  added. 

Example :  Consider  that  2,200  pounds  of  cream  testing  30  per  cent 
butterfat  is  churned,  and  that  the  butter  at  the  time  of  salting  con- 
tains 13.5  per  cent  moisture.  How  much  moisture  should  be  added 
to  the  churn  to  obtain  15.8  per  cent  moisture  in  the  finished  product? 

2200  X  30  per  cent  =  660  lbs.  butterfat. 

660  X  25  per  cent  =  165  lbs.  churn  gain. 

660  +  165  =  825  lbs.  estimated  butter. 
15.8  —  13.5  =  2.3  per  cent  water  to  add. 

825  X  2.3  per  cent  =  18.9  lbs.  of  water. 

For  practical  commercial  purposes,  this  procedure  gives  very 
satisfactory  results.  By  this  method,  the  moisture  can  usually  be 
controlled  within  0.3  per  cent.  Approximately  75  per  cent  of  the 
creameries  are  using  this  method. 

During  the  spring  months  when  feed  conditions  cause  a  varied 
physical  condition  in  the  butterfat,  the  procedure  above  is  not  advised, 
inasmuch  as  the  moisture  varies  from  day  to  day.  During  this 
period,  the  wash  water  is  drained  as  usual,  the  salt  is  added,  and  the 
butter  is  worked  about  two-thirds  of  the  time  necessary  to  complete 


BUL.  443]    STANDARDIZATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  CALIFORNIA  BUTTER   23 

the  working.  It  is  tested  for  moisture  at  this  stage.  The  butter- 
maker  then  must  use  his  own  judgment  as  to  whether  to  add  moisture. 
If  it  contains  15.5  per  cent  moisture  and  both  the  butter  and  the 
interior  of  the  churn  are  dry,  a  little  more  water  may  be  added  before 
continuing  to  work  the  butter.  However,  if  it  is  in  a  leaky,  wet  con- 
dition and  there  appears  to  be  considerable  water  in  the  churn,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  drain  the  free  moisture  from  the  churn  before 
continuing. 

The  incorporation  of  the  moisture  and  salt  are  accomplished 
while  the  butter  is  being  worked.  Working  the  butter  is  also  an 
important  item  in  developing  a  desirable  texture  or  body  in  the  butter. 
During  the  spring  months  when  cattle  feed  on  young  succulent  grasses, 
the  physical  condition  of  the  butterfat  makes  the  control  of  moisture 
difficult.  Some  butter  makers  become  so  engrossed  in  controlling 
moisture  that  they  often  neglect  the  control  of  salt  and  texture. 
Consequently,  there  is  more  sticky,  weak-bodied  butter,  more  gritty 
butter  from  undissolved  salt,  and  more  mottled  butter,  during  this 
period  of  the  year. 

Controlling  the  salt  in  the  butter  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter. 
There  is  a  slight  difference  in  the  amount  of  salt  desired  for  butter 
in  the  various  California  markets.  The  markets  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  state  prefer  butter  containing  from  2.0  to  2.5  per  cent  salt, 
while  those  in  the  northern  part  prefer  a  salt  content  of  from  3.0  to 
3.3  per  cent. 

To  obtain  approximately  3  per  cent,  the  salt  is  added  at  a  rate 
of  4  pounds  to  each  100  pounds  of  butterfat.  For  example,  for  800 
pounds  of  butterfat,  32  pounds  of  salt  should  be  used.  Assuming  a 
25  per  cent  churn  gain,  the  800  pounds  of  butterfat  would  give  1000 
pounds  of  butter  (approximately).  Three  per  cent  of  1000  pounds 
equals  30  pounds,  the  amount  of  salt  in  the  finished  butter.  Approxi- 
mately 2  pounds  of  salt  are  lost  or  unaccounted  for  in  a  thousand- 
pound  churning.  Some  of  the  loss  is  found  in  brine  clinging  to  the 
interior  of  the  churn ;  the  other  is  due  to  moisture  and  impurities  in 
the  salt,  which  are  not  considered  when  determining  the  amount  of 
salt  to  use.  The  commercial  grades  of  salt  used  are  constant  in 
composition,  a  fact  which  makes  the  above  calculation  of  salt  very 
satisfactory. 

From  the  standpoint  of  marketing,  the  texture  or  body  of  the 
butter  is  more  important  than  the  composition.  The  consumers  do 
not  detect  high  or  low  moisture  or  fat  in  butter.  They  do,  however, 
detect  irregularities  in  texture.  '  The  method  previously  mentioned 
for  controlling  moisture  was  adopted  largely  because  it  aided  in  devel- 


24  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

oping  good  texture  in  the  butter.  If  the  butter  is  worked  with  excess 
moisture  in  the  churn,  it  cannot  be  given  additional  working  after  the 
desired  amount  of  moisture  has  been  obtained  without  incorporating 
more  moisture.  If,  however,  only  enough  moisture  is  added  to  the 
churn  to  give  the  desired  amount,  then  when  this  stage  is  reached, 
the  interior  of  the  churn  will  be  almost  dry  and  the  butter  can  be 
given  additional  working  without  additional  moisture  being  incorpo- 
rated. 

It  is  desirable  to  work  the  butter  dry  in  order  to  obtain  a  minimum 
shrinkage  between  the  churn  and  the  final  package.  Well-worked 
butter  stands  up  better  at  warm  temperatures  than  underworked 
butter.  It  will  not  develop  a  yellow  oily  appearance  on  the  consumer's 
table  during  warm  weather  as  readily  as  underworked,  weak-bodied 
butter. 

Handling  Scrap  Butter. — During  the  process  of  cutting  and 
wrapping  butter,  small  scraps  accumulate,  known  to  creamerymen  as 
'scrap  butter.'  If  these  scraps  are  replaced  in  the  churn  and 
reworked  with  fresh  butter,  it  is  more  difficult  to  control  the  moisture 
and  salt,  as  the  amount  of  moisture  and  salt  remaining  in  the  scraps 
is  not  known.  There  is  also  a  possibility  of  getting  a  mottled  color 
in  the  butter  when  scrap  butter  is  reworked  with  fresh  butter,  because 
of  the  difference  in  the  color  of  the  two.  Scrap  butter  is  likely  to 
become  contaminated  by  contact  with  the  equipment  used  in  cutting. 
In  commercial  plants  it  is  often  handled  with  the  hands  instead  of 
paddles,  a  procedure  which  is  another  source  of  contamination. 

Three  methods  of  handling  scrap  butter  are  recommended.  In 
creameries  where  a  large  amount  of  butter  is  cut  and  wrapped  each 
day,  the  best  method  of  handling  the  scrap  butter  is  to  place  it  all 
in  a  churn  and  rework  it,  adding  sufficient  water  and  salt  to  make 
up  that  which  was  lost  while  cutting.  When  only  a  small  amount 
of  butter  is  cut  and  wrapped  daily,  it  is  recommended  that  the  scrap 
butter  be  tamped  firmly  in  a  butter  mold  and  then  cut  and  wrapped 
immediately.  The  butter  mold  need  not  be  full  before  cutting.  Four 
or  more  inches  of  butter  in  the  bottom  can  be  cut  as  well  as  a  full 
mold.  Another  method  of  handling  scrap  is  to  place  it  in  the  pasteur- 
izer with  the  cream  to  be  pasteurized.  When  this  method  is  used,  the 
butter  should  be  added  to  the  cream  before  the  cream  is  heated  in 
order  that  the  butter  may  break  up  gradually  and  mix  with  it.  If  the 
butter  is  placed  in  hot  cream,  it  will  melt  and  may  result  in  ' mealy' 
butter. 

Results  of  Field  Work. — Tables  1  to  3  indicate  to  some  extent  the 
progress  made  by  the  creameries  cooperating  in  butter  standardization 


BUL.  443]    STANDARDIZATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  CALIFORNIA  BUTTER   25 

and  improvement.  Table  1  gives  analyses  of  butter  from  creameries 
that  had  cooperated  in  this  work  for  two  years  and  shows  the  im- 
provement in  uniformity  of  composition  of  the  butter  the  last  two 
months  of  the  second  year  compared  with  the  first  two  months  of  the 
first  year. 

TABLE  1 

Comparison  of  Analyses  After,  First  Two  Months  with  those  of  the 

Last  Two  Months  at  the  Close  of  the  Second  Year 


Range 

in  composition 

first  two 

months 

Butter 

below 

standard 

first  two 

months 

Range 

in  composition 

at  close  of 

second  year 

Butter 

below 

standard 

at  close  of 

second  year 

Standard 
desired 

Moisture 

per  cent 

12.  5  to  18.0 

1.45  to    6.0 

.6  to  2.95 

77.6  to  83.5 

per  cent 

59 
20 

18 

72 

per  cent 

15.6  to  16.1 
2.5to3.4 
0.4  to  1.2 

79.7  to  81.5 

per  cent 

4.0 
1.0 

1.3 

1.4 

per  cent 

14.5  to  16.0* 

Salt 

2.5  to  3.5 

Curd 

Less  than  1.0 

Fat 

80.5 

*Although  the  standard  for  moisture  is  from  14.5  per  cent  to  16.0  per  cent,  it  is  desirable  to  obtain 
close  to  16  per  cent  for  economy. 

TABLE  2 

Comparison  of  Analyses  of  Samples  from  Creameries  Cooperating 

One  Year  or  Less 


Range 

in  composition 

first  two 

months 

Butter 

below 

standard 

first  two 

months 

Range 

in  composition 

at  close  of 

year 

Butter 

below 

standard 

at  close  of 

year 

Standard 
desired 

Moisture 

per  cent 

13.0  to  17.8 

1.87  to  5.0 

0.5to2.3 

77.9  to  83.4 

per  cent 

56 
21 
16 
42 

per  cent 

14.2  to  17.0 

2.0to3.9 

0.4  to  1.3 

78.9  to  82.5 

per  cent 

10.8 
8.4 
4.0 

11.0 

per  cent 
14.5  to  16.0 

Salt 

2.5  to  3.5 

Curd.  .. 

Less  than  1 . 0 

Fat 

80.5 

TABLE  3 

Comparison  of  Analyses  of  Samples  from  Creameries  that  Cooperated 

in  the  Work  of  the  First  Year 


Range 

in  composition 

first  two 

months 

Butter 

below 

standard 

first  two 

months 

Range 

in  composition 

at  close  of 

year 

Butter 

below 

standard 

at  close  of 

year 

Standard 
desired 

Moisture  .. 

per  cent 

12.  5  to  18.0 
1.45  to  6.0 
0.6  to  2.95 
77.6  to  83.5 

per  cent 

59 
20 

18 

72 

per  cent 

14. 5  to  16.2 

2.4to3.5 

0.47  to  1.1 

79.9  to  81.0 

per  cent 

3.0 
1.0 
0.8 
2.0 

per  cent 

14.5  to  16  0 

Salt 

2.5  to3.5 

Curd 

Less  than  1. 0 

Fat 

80.5 

26  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION 

Table  2  gives  analyses  of  butter  from  creameries  that  have  co- 
operated in  this  work  for  a  year  or  less,  and  shows  the  improvement 
in  the  uniformity  of  composition  of  the  butter. 

A  comparison  of  tables  1  and  2  shows  that  creamerymen  cooperat- 
ing for  one  year  do  not  obtain  as  satisfactory  results  as  those  who  have 
cooperated  two  years. 

The  creameries  starting  butter-improvement  work  the  second  year 
did  not  make  as  much  progress  as  those  during  the  first  year  as  may 
be  seen  by  comparing  tables  2  and  3.  This  may  be  accounted  for  very 
easily.  During  the  first  year  fewer  creameries  cooperated,  thus 
making  it  possible  to  spend  more  time  in  the  field  with  each  creamery. 


CONCLUSIONS 

Although  the  butter  represented  in  butter-improvement  work  is 
approximately  75  per  cent  of  the  butter  manufactured  in  California 
or  approximately  56,000,000  pounds  a  year,  there  are  still  several 
important  dairy  sections  that  have  not  been  included  in  this  project. 
This  is  due  to  the  isolated  location  of  these  sections. 

It  would  be  incorrect  to  say  that  the  butter  from  the  creameries 
cooperating  at  the  present  time  is  uniform  in  workmanship  and  high 
quality.  Some  creameries  make  more  rapid  progress  than  others,  some 
have  been  cooperating  but  a  short  time,  and  others  change  help  often, 
the  new  employees  requiring  additional  training.  The  rate  of  progress 
depends  largely  on  the  ability  and  initiative  of  the  creamerymen. 
Large  creameries  in  the  United  States  find  it  necessary  to  keep  a 
manufacturing  specialist  in  the  field  constantly  in  order  to  secure  a 
uniform  brand  of  butter  from  all  their  plants.  If  conclusions  can  be 
drawn  from  this  fact,  it  seems  that  a  continued  check  on  the  cream- 
eries is  necessary  in  order  to  maintain  uniformity.  On  the  whole,  the 
improvement  of  the  butter  is  very  gradual;  sudden  changes  were 
never  noticeable. 

It  is  difficult  to  make  suggestions  for  carrying  this  work  to  a  con- 
clusion. If  the  creameries  retained  the  sarnie  management  and  the 
same  factory  employees,  it  might  then  be  possible  to  carry  this  work 
to  a  satisfactory  conclusion  in  a  definite  length  of  time.  Changes  in 
management,  in  buttermakers,  and  in  other  factory  employees  create 
a  continual  demand  for  instruction.  After  the  employees  in  a  cream- 
ery attain  a  certain  degree  of  perfection,  less  instruction  is  needed. 

In  all  creameries  there  is  some  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the 
employees.     The  managers,  recognizing  this  fact,  appreciate  butter- 


BUL.  443]    STANDARDIZATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  CALIFORNIA  BUTTER    27 

improvement  work,  as  it  gives  them  a  check  on  their  employees.  If 
an  employee  does  his  work  mechanically,  not  knowing  why  certain 
things  are  done,  he  is  more  apt  to  be  careless. 

It  has  not  been  possible  to  take  creameries  into  butter-improvement 
work  as  rapidly  as  they  have  desired  to  enter,  because  there  has  been 
but  one  man  available  for  field  work.  It  has  been  necessary,  therefore, 
to  limit  the  number  of  creameries  so  that  those  cooperating  could  be 
given  proper  attention.  Thus  progress  has  been  slower  than  it  would 
have  been  if  more  assistance  in  the  field  had  been  available. 

After  all  the  creamerymen  in  the  state  who  desire  to  cooperate 
in  this  work  have  been  accepted,  it  will  be  some  time  before  all  the 
butter  arriving  on  the  markets  shows  a  marked  degree  of  uniformity 
in  workmanship  and  quality.  When  this  can  be  accomplished,  the 
amount  of  field  work  may  be  decreased. 

In  order  to  encourage  creameries  to  raise  their  standards  and  in 
order  that  they  may  secure  better  markets  as  a  result  of  their  efforts 
along  these  lines,  it  has  been  suggested  that  a  California  brand  be 
adopted  which  creameries  Avould  be  permitted  to  use  after  they  had 
attained  a  certain  degree  of  perfection.  This  brand  would  give  the 
butter  a  distinction  on  the  market.  To  use  it  would  be  an  asset  in 
continuing  and  increasing  dairy  production  in  California  where  land 
values  are  relatively  higher  than  in  the  surrounding  states,  inasmuch 
as  these  creameries  should  then  be  able  to  pay  the  farmers  more  for 
their  cream.  The  farmers  would  thus  receive  the  highest  market 
value  for  their  butter,  and  with  the  adoption  of  such  a  brand  they 
would  be  given  an  added  incentive  to  reach  the  standard  set  and  to 
supply  a  product  of  high  quality. 


LITERATURE     CITED 

i  Morten  sen,  M. 

1918.     State  and  national  brands  for  butter  and  cheese.     Jour.  Dairy  Sci., 
5:  383-400. 

2  Frey,  J.  J. 

1923.     Dairy  laws  of  California.     California  State  Dept.  Agr.,  Special  Publ. 
40:  1-56. 

3  HUNZIKER,   O.   F. 

1920.     The  butter  industry.     Q66  pp.     Published  by  the  author,  LaGrange. 
Illinois. 


STATION  PUBLICATIONS  AVAILABLE   FOR  FREE   DISTRIBUTION 


No. 

253.  Irrigation  and  Soil  Conditions  in  the 
Sierra    Nevada   Foothills,    California. 

262.  Citrus   Diseases   of   Florida   and   Cuba 

Compared   with    those    of   California. 

263.  Size  Grades  for  Ripe  Olives. 

268.   Growing  and  Grafting  Olive  Seedlings. 

273.  Preliminary  Report  on  Kearney  Vine- 
yard Experimental  Drain,  Fresno 
County,    California. 

276.  The  Pomegranate. 

277.  Sudan    Grass. 

278.  Grain    Sorghums. 

279.  Irrigation   of  Rice  in    California. 
283.  The  Olive   Insects  of  California. 
294.   Bean   Culture  in    California. 

304.  A   Study  of  the  Effects  of  Freezes  on 

Citrus    in    California. 
310.   Plum    Pollination. 

312.  Mariout   Barley. 

313.  Pruning      Young      Deciduous      Fruit 

Trees. 
319.  Caprifigs    and    Caprification. 
824.   Storage  of   Perishable  Fruit  at  Freez- 
ing Temperatures. 
325.   Rice     Irrigation     Measurements     and 

Experiments    in    Sacramento   Valley, 

1914-1919. 
328.   Prune   Growing   in    California. 
331.   Phylloxera-Resistant    Stocks. 
835.   Cocoanut    Meal    as    a    Feed    for   Dairy 

Cows   and   Other   Livestock. 
339.  The    Relative    Cost    of    Making    Logs 

from    Small   and   Large  Timber. 
840.  Control     of     the     Pocket     Gopher     in 

California. 

343.  Cheese    Pests    and    Their    Control. 

344.  Cold    Storage   as    an    Aid   to   the   Mar- 

keting of  Plums. 

346.  Almond    Pollination. 

347.  The  Control  of  Red  Spiders  in  Decid- 

uous Orchards. 

348.  Pruning  Young  Olive  Trees. 

349.  A     Study    of    Sidedraft    and    Tractor 

Hitches. 

350.  Agriculture      in      Cut-over      Redwood 

Lands. 

353.  Bovine    Infectious   Abortion. 

354.  Results  of  Rice  Experiments  in    1922. 

357.  A     Self-mixing    Dusting    Machine    for 

Applying      Dry       Insecticides       and 
Fungicides. 

358.  Black    Measles,     Water    Berries,     and 

Related   Vine  Troubles. 

361.  Preliminary    Yield    Tables    for    Second 

Growth   Redwood. 

362.  Dust  and  the  Tractor  Engine. 

363.  The  Pruning  of  Citrus  Trees  in   Cali- 

fornia. 

364.  Fungicidal    Dusts    for    the    Control    of 

Bunt. 

365.  Avocado  Culture  in   California. 

366.  Turkish  Tobacco  Culture,   Curing  and 

Marketing. 

367.  Methods  of  Harvesting  and  Irrigation 

in   Relation   of  Mouldy  Walnuts. 

368.  Bacterial  Decomposition  of  Olives  dur- 

ing  Pickling. 

369.  Comparison     of     Woods     for     Butter 

Boxes. 

370.  Browning  of  Yellow  Newtown  Apples. 

371.  The    Relative    Cost   of    Yarding    Small 

and   Large   Timber. 

373.  Pear   Pollination. 

374.  A   Survey  of  Orchard  Practices  in  the 

Citrus    Industry  of    Southern     Cali- 
fornia. 

375.  Results   of   Rice    Experiments    at   Cor- 

tena,    1923. 

376.  Sun-Drying  and  Dehydration   of  Wal 

nuts. 

377.  The  Cold    Storage  of   Pears. 
379.  Walnut   Culture   in   California. 


BULLETINS 
No. 


380. 
382. 


385. 


387. 
388. 

389. 
390. 

391. 

392. 
393. 
394. 

395. 
396. 

397. 

398. 
399. 


400. 
401. 

402. 
404. 
405. 
406. 
407. 


408. 
409. 


410. 
411. 


414. 


415. 
416. 


417. 
418. 


419. 
420. 


421. 
422. 


423. 
424. 


425. 
426. 


427. 
428. 


429. 


Growth  of  Eucalyptus  in  California 
Plantations. 

Pumping  for  Drainage  in  the  San 
Joaquin    Valley,    California. 

Pollination    of   the    Sweet   Cherry. 

Pruning  Bearing  Deciduous  Fruit 
Trees. 

Fig  Smut. 

The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Sun- 
drying  Fruit. 

Berseem  or   Egyptian    Clover. 

Harvesting  and  Packing  Grapes  in 
California. 

Machines  for  Coating  Seed  Wheat  with 
Copper    Carbonate    Dust. 

Fruit    Juice    Concentrates. 

Crop  Sequences  at  Davis. 

Cereal  Hay  Production  in  California. 
Feeding  Trials  with  Cereal  Hay. 

Bark   Diseases   of   Citrus  Trees. 

The  Mat  Bean  (Phaseolus  aconitifo- 
lius). 

Manufacture  of  Roquefort  Type  Cheese 
from    Goat's   Milk. 

Orchard  Heating  in  California. 

The  Blackberry  Mite,  the  Cause  of 
Redberry  Disease  of  the  Himalaya 
Blackberry,    and    its   Control. 

The  Utilization  of  Surplus  Plums. 

Cost  of  Work  Horses  on  California 
Farms. 

The  Codling  Moth  in  Walnuts. 

The  Dehydration  of  Prunes. 

Citrus  Culture  in  Central  California. 

Stationary  Spray  Plants  in  California. 

Yield,  Stand  and  Volume  Tables  for 
White  Fir  in  the  California  Pine 
Region. 

Alternaria  Rot  of  Lemons. 

The  Digestibility  of  Certain  Fruit  By- 
products as  Determined  for  Rumi- 
nants. 

Factors  Affecting  the  Quality  of  Fresh 
Asparagus  after  it  is  Harvested. 

Paradichlorobenzene  as  a  Soil  Fumi- 
gant. 

A  Study  of  the  Relative  Values  of  Cer- 
tain Root  Crops  and  Salmon  Oil  as 
Sources  of  Vitamin  A  for  Poultry. 

Planting  and  Thinning  Distances  for 
Deciduous  Fruit  Trees. 

The  Tractor  on  California  Farms. 

Culture  of  the  Oriental  Persimmon 
in    California. 

Poultry  Feeding:  Principles  and 
Practice. 

A  Study  of  Various  Rations  for 
Finishing  Range  Calves  as  Baby 
Beeves. 

Economic  Aspects  of  the  Cantaloupe 
Industry. 

Rice  and  Rice  By-products  as  Feeds 
for   Fattening   Swine. 

Beef   Cattle  Feeding  Trials,    1921-24. 

Cost  of  Producing  Almonds  in  Cali- 
fornia ;   a  Progress  Report. 

Apricots  (Series  on  California  Crops 
and  Prices). 

The  Relation  of  Rate  of  Maturity  to 
Egg  Production. 

Apple   Growing   in    California. 

Apple  Pollination  Studies  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

The  Value  of  Orange  Pulp  for  Milk 
Production. 

The  Relation  of  Maturity  of  Cali- 
fornia Plums  to  Shipping  and 
Dessert    Quality. 

Economic  Status  of  the  Grape  Industry. 


CIRCULARS 

No.  No. 

87.  Alfalfa.  259. 

117.  The    Selection    and    Cost    of    a    Small  261. 

Pumping   Plant.  262. 

127.  House    Fumigation.  263. 

129.  The  Control  of  Citrus  Insects.  264. 
136.   Melilotus    indica    as    a    Green-Manure 

Crop  for  California.  265. 

144.  Oidium    or    Powdery    Mildew    of    the  266. 

Vine. 

157.  Control  of  the  Pear  Scab.  267. 
164.   Small  Fruit  Culture  in  California. 

166.  The  County   Farm  Bureau.  269. 

170.   Fertilizing     California     Soils     for    the  270. 

1918   Crop.  272. 
173.  The    Construction    of    the    Wood-Hoop 

Silo.  273. 

178.  The   Packing  of  Apples  in   California.  276. 

179.  Factors    of    Importance    in    Producing  277. 

Milk  of  Low   Bacterial   Count. 

202.  County    Organizations   for   Rural   Fire  278. 

Control. 

203.  Peat   as   a   Manure   Substitute.  279. 
209.   The  Function  of  the  Farm  Bureau. 

212.   Salvaging    Rain-Damaged    Prunes.  281. 
215.   Feeding  Dairy  Cows  in  California. 
217.  Methods   for  Marketing   Vegetables   in 

California.  282. 

230.  Testing  Milk,    Cream,    and   Skim   Milk 

for  Butterfat.  283. 

231.  The    Home    Vineyard.  284. 

232.  Harvesting    and    Handling    California  285. 

Cherries    for    Eastern    Shipment.  286. 

234.  Winter  Injury  to  Young  Walnut  Trees  287. 

during  1921-22.  288. 

238.  The  Apricot  in  California.  289. 

239.  Harvesting     and     Handling     Apricots  290. 

and  Plums  for  Eastern  Shipment.  291. 

240.  Harvesting    and    Handling    Pears    for 

Eastern   Shipment.  292. 

241.  Harvesting  and  Handling  Peaches  for  293. 

Eastern   Shipment.  294. 

243.  Marmalade  Juice  and  Jelly  Juice  from  295. 

Citrus  Fruits. 

244.  Central  Wire  Bracing  for  Fruit  Trees.  296. 

245.  Vine   Pruning  Systems. 

248.  Some    Common    Errors    in    Vine  Prun-  298. 

kig  and  Their  Remedies. 

249.  Replacing    Missing    Vines.  300. 

250.  Measurement   of    Irrigation   Water   on  301. 

the  Farm.  302. 

252.  Supports  for  Vines.  303. 

253.  Vineyard  Plans. 

254.  The  Use  of  Artificial  Light  to  Increase  304. 

Winter    Egg   Production.  305. 

255.  Leguminous  Plants  as  Organic  Fertil-  306. 

izer    in    California    Agriculture. 

256.  The   Control   of  Wild   Morning   Glory.  307. 

257.  The  Small-Seeded  Horse  Bean.  308. 

258.  Thinning   Deciduous   Fruits.  309. 


Pear  By-products. 

Sewing  Grain  Sacks. 

Cabbage  Growing  in   California. 

Tomato  Production  in  California. 

Preliminary      Essentials      to      Bovine 

Tuberculosis  Control. 
Plant   Disease   and   Pest   Control. 
Analyzing     the     Citrus     Orchard     by 

Means   of   Simple   Tree   Records. 
The  Tendency  of  Tractors  to   Rise  in 

Front;    Causes   and   Remedies. 
An  Orchard  Brush  Burner. 
A  Farm  Septic  Tank. 
California  Farm  Tenancy  and  Methods 

of  Leasing. 
Saving  the  Gophered   Citrus  Tree. 
Home  Canning. 
Head,   Cane,    and   Cordon   Pruning  of 

Vines. 
Olive  Pickling  in  Mediterranean  Coun- 
tries. 
The  Preparation  and  Refining  of  Olive 

Oil   in    Southern    Europe. 
The  Results  of  a  Survey  to  Determine 

the  Cost  of  Producing  Beef  in  Cali- 
fornia. 
Prevention  of  Insect  Attack  on  Stored 

Grain. 
Fertilizing  Citrus  Trees  in  California. 
The  Almond   in   California. 
Sweet  Potato  Production  in  California. 
Milk  Houses  for  California  Dairies. 
Potato   Production   in   California. 
Phylloxera  Resistant  Vineyards. 
Oak  Fungus  in  Orchard  Trees. 
The  Tangier  Pea. 
Blackhead   and   Other   Causes  of  Loss 

of  Turkeys  in   California. 
Alkali  Soils. 

The    Basis   of   Grape    Standardization. 
Propagation   of   Deciduous   Fruits. 
The   Growing  and   Handling  of   Head 

Lettuce  in   California. 
Control     of     the     California     Ground 

Squirrel. 
The    Possibilities    and    Limitations    of 

Cooperative  Marketing. 
Coccidiosis  of  Chickens. 
Buckeye  Poisoning  of  the  Honey  Bee. 
The   Sugar  Beet  in   California. 
A  Promising  Remedy  for  Black  Measles 

of  the  Vine. 
Drainage  on  the  Farm. 
Liming  the  Soil. 
A  General  Purpose  Soil  Auger  and  its 

Use  on  the  Farm. 
American   Foulbrood   and  its   Control. 
Cantaloupe  Production  in  California. 
Fruit  Tree  and  Orchard  Judging. 


The  publications  listed  above  may  be  had  by  addressing 

College  of  Agriculture, 

University  of  California, 

Berkeley,  California. 

8m-ll,'27 


